Literacy and Young People Essay

The chance to apply for a master obligation in supporting proficiency improvement has emerged in your instructive condition. For your meeting you have been approached to get ready data to show that you can: Education implies the capacity to peruse and compose. Recently has the word ‘literacy’ been applied as the conclusive term for perusing and composing, for the most part since the presentation of the National Literacy Strategy in schools. The abilities of perusing and composing supplement one another and grow together, it hence bodes well to utilize the term ‘literacy’. Perusing and composing are types of correspondence dependent on the communicated in language. Powerful talking and listening abilities are basic so as to create education aptitudes. The movement of education abilities is an essential part of advancement and learning. Without the capacity to peruse, compose and listen kids and youngsters will be unable to work viably in school, school, college or at work or speak with others about their thoughts and take an interest completely and securely in the network. Education empowers kids and youngsters to communicate innovatively and beneficially. Most of occupations and vocations depend on a component of fundamental education (and numeracy) abilities. Proficiency is required in our regular day to day existences, to guard us by having the option to understand signs and adhere to guidelines, read bearings, understanding papers, plans, food names, managing family unit funds. Proficiency additionally empowers us to advance with innovation by being capable use PCs ably, riding the web and having the option to peruse and compose messages. As the core of all learning lies the two key abilities, education and numeracy. Proficiency is perhaps the more significant of the two abilities as youngsters and youngsters need education so as to get to assist educational program regions, e.g so as to move toward a numeracy issue, the inquiry should be perused andâ understood before the appropriate response can start to be found. The advancement of proficiency is significant since the beginning for all kids and youngsters. As Teaching Assistants all things considered, we will be supporting kids and youngsters with correspondence troubles or other Special Educational Needs which could affect their proficiency aptitudes, a circumstance may likewise emerge where English isn't the primary language. It is significant that youngsters and youngsters are urged to investigate the manner in which the English language works, e.g phonics for jargon, perusing, composing and spelling. This will empower kids and youngsters to pick up information to have the option to peruse, compose and spell certainly. The learning goals are related to 12 strands in education to show movement in each strand. The strands are as per the following:- Speak and tune in for a wide scope of purposes in various settings 1. Talking 2. Tuning in and reacting 3. Gathering conversation and association 4. Show Peruse and compose for a scope of purposes on paper and on screen 5. Word acknowledgment: disentangling (perusing) and encoding (spelling) 6. Word Structure and spelling 7. Comprehension and deciphering writings 8. Drawing in and reacting to messages 9. Making and forming writings 10. Text structure and association 11. Sentence structure and accentuation 12. Introduction Inside my setting we intend to energize kids and youngsters to be capable peruse and compose with certainty, familiarity and comprehension, to have the option to coordinate a full scope of understanding signals (phonic, realistic, syntactic, logical) to screen their peruse and have the option to address their own missteps. To comprehend the sound and spelling framework and utilize this to peruse and spell precisely, have familiar, decipherable and cursive penmanship. To have an enthusiasm for words and their implications and a developing jargon. To know, comprehend and have the option to compose various types in fiction and poetry,â understand and be acquainted with a portion of the manners by which stories are organized through essential proficiency thoughts of setting, character and plot. The capacity to get, utilize and have the option to compose a scope of verifiable writings, plan, draft, reconsider and alter their own composition, have a reasonable specialized jargon through w hich to comprehend and talk about their perusing and composing. Kids are urged to be keen on books, read with satisfaction and assess and legitimize their inclinations. Build up their own forces of creative mind, innovativeness and basic mindfulness through perusing and composing. In the Foundation Stage (Nursery and Reception) †Children and youngsters ought to be allowed the chance to talk, tune in and speak to thoughts in their exercises. Use correspondence, language and English in all aspects of the educational program and to become inundated in a situation wealthy in print and opportunities for correspondence. All Key Stage 1 (Years 1 and 2) †Children and youngsters ought to figure out how to talk unquestionably and tune in to what others need to state. They should start to peruse and compose autonomously (utilizing phonic information) and with excitement. They ought to utilize language to investigate their own encounters and nonexistent words. All Key Stage 2 (Years 3-6) †Children and youngsters ought to figure out how to chan ge the manner in which they talk and write to suit fitting circumstances, purposes and crowds. They should peruse a scope of writings and react to various layers of significance in them. They ought to investigate the utilization of language in scholarly and non-artistic messages and figure out how the structure of language functions. Intercession bunches are offered in talking, perusing, composing and tuning in to those kids and youngsters who are under-accomplishing and sponsor bunches for the more capable. Where the students execution is fundamentally beneath normal we will look for pro arrangement, for example, language training, EAL projects and perusing recuperation will be gotten to varying. In Key stages 1 and 2, English meetings utilize the National Strategy unit designs (our own renditions) concentrating on shared perusing, shared and guided composition and delivering supported results. Further exercises are additionally utilized for centered exercises in phonics, guided perusing and cognizance. In Key Stage 1 there is an every day phonics meeting, day by day guided p erusing and English exercise. There is one discrete penmanship meeting every week. What's more, there is likewise an opening utilized for the advancement of talking and tuning in and the class story. In lower Key Stage 2 there is likewise an every day phonics meeting, four guided understanding meetings and a daily English exercise. There is one discrete penmanship meeting each fortnight. Furthermore there is additionally an opening utilized for the improvement of talking and tuning in and the class story. In upper Key Stage 2 there is a day by day phonics/spelling meeting, four guided understanding meetings and a day by day English exercise. There is one discrete penmanship meeting each fortnight. Extra there is an opening utilized for the advancement of talking and tuning in and the class story. The checking and assessment of the English arrangement is the obligation of the English co-ordinator who is mindful to the head educator and the governors for the improvement of English all through the school. This is to be accomplished in an assortment of ways: Regular conversations with staff concerning the advancement of gatherings and people Involvement in long and medium term arranging over the school in English Regular study hall perception and working close by partners to help recognize qualities and shortcomings, to offer help to singular staff where proper Regular observing of assets, arranging and children’s work Reviewing of appraisal results and information to assess the nature of learning in English all through the school. Watching that inside a key stage there is inclusion of the full English educational program in accordance with national educational program necessities, the early learning objectives and current National Primary Framework destinations (where utilized) Checking that fitting chances to raise multicultural and sex issues are made and taken Ensure that the time spent on the instructing of English is meeting our students needs Literacy Lessons are a simi lar time every day, in the wake of morning break time. They are separated into phonics and spelling, guided perusing and English. The exercise begins at 10.45 and completes at 12.30pm. The kids start by social occasion on the floor covering zone to be given a diagram of what's going on in the day’s exercise. As a Teaching Assistant a conversation would have occurred with the Class Teacher before the exercise occurring to set up the exercise plan and what is anticipated from you for the exercise. Some Teaching Assistants may have been engaged with components of arranging an exercise and ready to give their own thoughts regarding how is the most ideal approach to complete exercises. It might be that you work with an assigned gathering of youngsters who have advancement issues and require more consideration. It is significant thatâ the Teaching Assistant cooperates with the class educate to screen the advancement of understudies in every aspect of proficiency improvement. This will for the most part guarantee that the kids and youngsters are engaged and ready to meet the learning targets. A few students will require more support to take part than others using recognition and criticism, while distinguishing any worries or issues they may have. Checking of the youngsters and youngsters additionally includes the handing-off of data to the Class Teacher in regard of learning targets and input with respect to how the errands were overseen and how to accomplish their objectives going advances. We likewise complete mediation exercises in my setting where a gathering of youngsters are removed from the exercise by a Teaching Assistant to do some extra education exercises to focus on assignments, for example, hints of letter gatherings, understanding meetings and essential spellings to help improve their proficiency advancement. There are likewise gatherings of youngsters who are taken

Compare and contrast the views of Meyer and Bok on the issues of Essay

Thoroughly analyze the perspectives on Meyer and Bok on the issues of clinical expert misleading patients. State and clarify the likenesses and contrasts in their perspectives - Essay Example the divulgence of terrible news to patients is an exceptionally troublesome procedure; henceforth, it is useful for clinical experts to embrace an unbiased attitude between continually coming clean and never coming clean while unveiling data to the patient. Bok in any case, is firm on the perspective that it is essential for specialists to here and there lie to the patient when certain conditions are met. He anyway doesn't concur with Meyer’s proclamation that honesty is inconceivable. She sees it as inability to separate between reality from honesty. Despite the fact that she can't help contradicting this announcement, as I would see it a few likenesses with Meyer’s perspective exist. Meyer accepts that reality can't generally be unmistakably characterized subsequently; it can't generally be introduced to the patient (Meyer, n.d). For this situation Meyer gives the case of conditions that are terminal at time of exposure, nonetheless, may have a fix soon. It corresponds with Bok’s case of telling the patient he has at any rate four months to live, rather than revealing to him that he will kick the bucket in four months. The way that he will live for four months is confirmed, in any case, the way that he will kick t he bucket isn’t. Meyer accepts that patients may request reality in the mean time they don't really need reality and just need to pick up certainty from the uplifting news. In any case, Bok trusts patients need to hear reality with regards to their condition and specialists have no privilege or legitimization to retain data on the suspicion that patients really lean toward it (Bok, n.d). Bok concurs with Meyers’s see that reality may in some cases hurt the patient. Meyer alludes to this as ‘therapeutic privileged’. Nonetheless, Bok accepts that this case by Meyer is misrepresented and profits by coming clean exist and are not given adequate consideration. Bok accepts that coming clean with the patient permits the person in question to choose what steps to take forward in their treatment procedure. She permits

Multifaceted Background-- University Of Illinois Essays

Multifaceted Background- - University of Illinois Composing a self-intelligent tirade is maybe one of the most troublesome errands to perform. I have ended up considering this theme for an uncommonly significant time-frame; nobody has ever gotten some information about my way of life - the one thing about myself which I comprehend the least. This inquiry which is so natural for others to answer frequently drives me into a progression of tangled clarifications, I was conceived in the U.S., yet lived in Pakistan since I was six. My siblings moved to the US when I was thirteen I am currently about twenty, which implies I have gone through a large portion of my time on earth being Pakistani, the other half attempting to be American, or is the reverse way around? I don't view myself as Paki-American. I am too Naturalized to possibly be Pakistani. (in spite of the fact that by bequest, I am American), and I am not exactly acceptable with the American lifestyle. So what does this have to do with my way of life, what does a mark truly matter to social personality? It is important much. I accept this apparently insignificant disarray over marks uncovers the much more noteworthy disarray that encompasses my social character: Am I an extension between these two multifaceted societies, or have I become a mosaic showing hues from to a great extent, and somewhere else as well? Maybe both, and I could be a beautiful scaffold, or maybe not one or the other. Whatever the case, I can't appear to isolate these completely unique real factors inside me. Their powers are as yet conflicting, meeting up inside me, making a brilliant disarray out of me. I accept that to genuinely break down my way of life, the foundations of this disarray must be investigated. I n the range of this exposition, I should attempt to envelop the widths of two universes, their remarkable connections inside me... which I trust establish what is called culture. I am an outsider of sorts. I am an outsider in my own nation... be that as it may, what is my own nation? I am an outsider any place I go. In Pakistan, my fairly disintegrated Urdu uncovers my American leanings. In the U.S., my slight highlight and appearance mark me as a minority. Being bi-social has set me in a puzzling entry between two separate universes, with their own one of a kind belief system, thinking, conventions and lifestyle. It causes me comprehend the relationship that exists between such societies; and how they contrast. My character and personality has been shaped from these different societies. Being the oddball has its own approval, you know. I have gotten from such encounters, the craft of tact, and a feeling of comprehension. As I have developed through life, I have taken in a great deal. Be that as it may, one viewpoint which will consistently stay dim for me is my character. Mark: ________________________ Date: _____________________ (word count=469)

Strategic Management Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 2

Key Management Accounting - Essay Example In this paper the plan of action of United States Postal Service will be broke down. USPS is an autonomous organization of the United States central government answerable for offering postal assistance in the United States. The USPS utilized 626,764 laborers as on January, 2014 and worked 211,654 vehicles in 2013. The USPS is the administrator of the biggest non military personnel vehicle armada on the planet. The USPS is lawfully committed to serve all Americans, paying little mind to geology, at uniform cost and quality. The USPS has select access to letter boxes stamped U.S. Mail and individual letterboxes in the United States, yet at the same time goes up against private bundle conveyance administrations, for example, UPS and has part use with FedEx Express. The paper will investigate various constituents of item and capital markets to comprehend collaboration between both the business sectors. The United States Postal Service is confronting the most critical monetary test in its history. Securing the practicality of the nation’s postal framework is an unpredictable and troublesome errand that has no basic arrangement. The Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act of 2006 (henceforth alluded to as the Postal Act of 2006) updated the equal the initial investment administrative model of the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 (PRA) for a benefit and misfortune model. A fundamental assumption of the Postal Act of 2006 was that mail volume would keep on developing. In any case, falling mail volumes because of the downturn and electronic preoccupation, joined with the extra legal weights that are talked about in more prominent detail later in this paper, make it clear that the Postal Service’s existing plan of action doesn't give the adaptability expected to meet the new market real factors. The instruments accessible to the Postal Service are lacking to react to the joined impacts of the monetary downturn, the preoccupation of mail to electronic other options, and the legal prerequisite

Costs and Benefits of Globalization and Localization Essay -- Globaliza

For one to comprehend the expenses and advantages of globalization and confinement one first needs to comprehend what every involve. Globalization is the point at which a nation includes itself into universal issues, financially, strategically or even potentially socially. Globalization extends past the nearby limits of a country and spreads into different networks all through the world. Limitation is the point at which a nation decides not to take an interest in worldwide issues and limits itself and its kin from partaking in an association with some other nation. This implies this nation doesn't take part in any financial, political or culture issues with pariahs. In numerous articles tending to business today, one can find out about the perspectives toward globalization. Many feel as if globalization is the best procedure a business should seek after. This procedure of globalization offers a manner by which nations can get engaged with a country for normal interests. By utilizing the globalization procedure, a nation can learn better approaches for innovation. For instance, the United States could include itself with a nation that predominantly relies upon cultivating for their monetary steadiness and gains from them their upgraded methods that our ranchers could apply to cause their yields to develop better. Thusly the U.S. could set up an, exchange with this agrarian nation. Perhaps, the U.S. could show this nation on the most proficient method to make their economy more grounded by getting associated with the worldwide unhindered commerce markets were they could make incredible benefits on their produce. Along these lines the United States and the horticultural nation would both acquire a lot from this worldwide association. This leads into another favorable position for globalization, exchange. A few nations have immers... ... The economy is allowed to reinforce through exchange and partners can be made with worldwide inclusion. Likewise significant is the way of life and conventions that can be spread all through the world when there is correspondence. Confinement likewise focuses on culture however it is just one culture that is being watched. Patriotism is significant for a nation and gives its kin pride however there shouldn't be isolation from the remainder of the world. For the economy, there is a superior possibility for occupations and offices to be begun inside a nation that has a worldwide economy blasting. With everything taken into account I accept the advantages for globalization out path those of confinement yet it is significant that a nation engages in globalization yet additionally remembers restriction for certain ways too. Work Cited Rosenau , James. The Complexities and Contradictions of Globalization

Franziska MD Student Blogging about Life, School and Fashion

Get ready to read about Franziska, a student at a Midwestern osteopathic med school who blogs about life, school, and fashion on her blog, Franish. Thank you Franziska for sharing your story with us – we wish you loads of luck!   Accepted: Wed like to get to know you! Where are you from? Where and what did you study as an undergrad? Franziska: I was born in Germany, but moved to the US when I was 5. I grew up in a small, rural Wisconsin town, and eventually moved to Madison to go to the University of Wisconsin for undergrad. Accepted: Where are you in med school? What year are you? (If you’d like to keep your school private, can you please give us some clues?) Franziska: Im a first year medical student attending an osteopathic medical school in the Midwestnear a great lake! Accepted: Now that your first semester of med school is behind you, can you offer a few tips to our readers who will be starting med school next year? What are some things you learned after surviving your first semester that you wish youd known before? Franziska: If possible, take an anatomy course. In our curriculum, we started the school year with 12 weeks of anatomy. It was very overwhelming, coming in with no anatomy experience. I would also make sure you take some time off before you start! I quit my job 6 weeks before school started and traveled and slept in and enjoyed summer. It was awesome! Accepted: Your blog suggests that youre quite the fashionista! Can you tell us about your schools dress code and how you deal? Franziska: My school has a relatively strict dress code – the men have to wear a shirt and tie, and the women have to be dressed in similar professional clothing. I came from working in a laboratory for two years, where I was required to have full length pants and closed toed shoes, so coming to school where I just have to dress a bit nicer was great! I have some go-to pieces for days I dont want to put a lot of effort in (especially on test days, black pants and a sweater is about as complicated as it gets), but I still try to find a way to have fun while being professionally dressed. Accepted: Whats your favorite class so far? Franziska: I really enjoyed embryology – its crazy how we develop from a little flat bundle of cells and how our body parts contort to form the organs we have now. I was also surprised by how much I liked microbiology – those bugs can be so tricky (and smart!). Accepted: Looking back at the med school application process, what would you say was your greatest challenge? How did you work to overcome that challenge? Franziska: I found it really challenging to keep myself motivated to answer secondary after secondary essays. I tried to keep myself motivated by setting goals and then rewarding myself – 3 essays done? Time to go outside for an afternoon and enjoy summer instead of sitting at my computer some more. Plus, in the end, you have to remind yourself that youre doing this for your future, and that should be motivation enough! Accepted: Can you tell us about your blog? Who is your target audience? How have you benefited from the blogging experience? Franziska: I started my blog almost two years ago. I was working for a pharmaceutical development company, and was feeling a bit bored as all of my friends had moved away and my then boyfriend was in the middle of his second year of medical school. It was just something I got to have fun with and make friends online who had similar interests. Since then, it has evolved to not only talking about what I wear, but also about how I budget my money, how I prepared for my schools dress code, and just how medical school is going as a whole. My audience is for the majority women like myself – women who want to dress nice while staying within their budget. Blogging has been wonderful because it allowed me to take all of my friends with me when I moved away for school. I also have had some financial benefits, which has helped me slowly pay off all of the medical school application debt I accumulated! Do you want to be featured in Accepted.coms blog, Accepted Admissions Blog? If you want to share your med school journey with the world (or at least with our readers), email us at bloggers@accepted.com. Accepted.com ~ Helping You Write Your Best

Use of Undocumented Immigrants in the Construction Industry - 275 Words

Use of Undocumented Immigrants in the Construction Industry (Essay Sample) Content: Students Name Professors Name Course DateThe use of undocumented immigrants in the construction industry, and how it could put the construction firm at a liabilityTable of ContentsThesisIt is any firms' primary interest to make maximum profits ad one way of ensuring that is by cost cutting. Employees Salaries and remunerations is always a thorn to a company, and it is depicted in the Construction Industry, where this is prevalent as the preference for hiring undocumented immigrants is on a rise as they cost cheaper. The United States employment and labor laws require that both documented and undocumented workers are protected at the federal and state level. Employers' negligence of the laws, however, is familiar especially to the undocumented workers, and this can often lead to lawsuits where the firms loose out in litigations and compensations.Introduction The research aims at exploring how disputes can arise out of the construction industry as a result of the illeg al hiring of undocumented immigrants as well as to find ways of avoiding conflicts or resolving them if they arise, to help improve the business situation. Construction legal issues are bound to occur and as a result, the differences often lead to formal claims by either the contractor or agency for compensation and additional time. Solving of these issues promptly helps save costs such as legal fees, consultation expenses as well as management time and other expenses to all of the parties involved. The primary focus of this research is to identify and explain the legal issues as well as how they would be altered as well as find safe practices to avoid the legal implication. Therefore, the goals of this study are too; identify and explain the legal issue, explain the particular law or legal concepts that apply courts rule off these types of cases and steps to be taken to avoid this matter in the future.The key terms and conceptsConstruction law: this is the law that involves all the necessary legal processes; the bidding, negotiations, and agreement in the construction industry. It consists of contract law. It also governs how to solve disputes that may arise from and out of the parties involved in the construction process (Stein, 1). The owner and contractor are obliged according to the law to act in good faith in the performance of their contractual obligations. The contractor is supposed to disclose any material information relating to the design or construction specifications that may result in and from damaging implication. The owner also has a duty to cooperate as well as not to delay the construction process purposefully. Dispute: this is a conflict or disagreement concerning the legal existence of matter, by extent or type.Claim: this is a legal enforcement or demand taken by a person wanting compensation or reimbursement for a straight loss, or an injury suffered due to negligence. Compensation: this is payment of damages aimed at making amends neces sary to restoring an injured party to his former position. Indemnity: this is contractual collateral by which one person employs to secure another against a foreseen loss or to prevent him from being liable for the legal consequences of an act or inaction on the part of one of the parties or of some third person. Undocumented immigrant: this is a foreign-born person who lacks the right to be in the United States, having either entered without inspection or not subsequently securing the right to stay or overstayed beyond the visa stipulated time (Chavez, 10). Common areas in the construction industry that disputes may arise to include but are not limited to subcontracting process, Formation of contracts and their termination, Ethical concerns, Allocation of losses, Insurance, payments, Bidding, Contracting, Employment, and Labor. The Use of Undocumented immigrants and how it could put the construction firm at a liability. Lets commence by having a clear look at this precedent case. Celi vs. 42nd street development project, Inc. (2004)In making a judgment on this case, New York State court Judge maintained a claim that had been filed in behalf of one undocumented worker, known as, Radolfo Celi. Radolfo had severely suffered wounds while executing the demolition when he fell through an opening in the company basement floor and then crushed into the sub-basement. However, as a matter of responding to these charges, the firm was negligent and had violated the labor law. As a matter of defense, the company attorneys dispute these claims and argued that under Hoffman, Mr. Cellis undocumented status prevented him from any attempt to seek lost earnings. The reason for this was that, the payment of such money would have the impact of violating the federal immigrant laws. On the other hand in the case of the Celli, State justice by the name David I. Schmidt argued that the Hoffman decision did not command a change in the New York law so as to necessitate dismissal of t he plaintiffs claim to lost earning (O'Leary780). In the case documented as Arizonas HB 2779, implemented January 1, 2008, prohibits employers from knowingly or deliberately hiring undocumented employees. This precedent law requires that every employer has to use the E-Verify. The first time reprobates will have to face a ten-day suspension of their business licenses. The second bit of the law states that, any additional offense would definitely result in them loosing the business licenses. (Gaynor, 27). This is an important precedent case, guides the decisions made even to date. In 2006, the town of Hazelton, Pennsylvania passed the Immigration Relief Act. This imposes a $1,000 per day fine on any landlord who knowingly rents to an undocumented immigrant, revokes the business license of any employer who hires an undocumented immigrant, and declares English as the citys official language. This precedent case acts as base in this state and it creates a liability should it be violate d. The United States employment and labor laws; require that both documented and undocumented workers be protected at the federal and state level. Protection at the federal and state level applies to both the immigrant and non-immigrant communities. There is an estimated 11 million undocumented immigrant worker in the US. These immigrants represent roughly 4% of all the people that reside the United States and 5% of the overall labor force. Undocumented immigrants are more likely to find employment than their non-immigrant counterparts because hiring them is comparatively cheaper. The construction industry has an estimate of 26% of foreign-born workers are laborers (Torres, 145). This is a significant figure which adds up to the vital workforce in the various business industries. In the early years, hiring undocumented immigrants had little to no legal implication, but since 1986, before hiring any employee, all employers are required to do a background check on work permits and au thorization of the said employee or else risk getting civil penalties or criminal prosecutions if they fail to do so. Some estimates suggest that unauthorized workers are estimated at 22% to 36% of the construction industry workforce. According to surveys, the number of undocumented workers in the construction sector dropped by 5% from the year 2007 to the year 2012. Undocumented immigrants make up a large overall population of the labor force because they are most likely to be of a suitable age bracket for labor. Research findings on education levels show that undocumented immigrants are more likely to have not graduated high school or lack a college diploma compared to their U.S.-born compatriots. As a result, I found out that they are more liable to be concentrated in low-skilled occupations. The hiring of undocumented immigrants has had its impact on the construction industry such as reduced wage rates, work accidents as well as fraud. Undocumented workers are in most cases not treated as equals with U.S.-born workers due to their legal status and as a result, they are subjected to a variety of job malpractices. The most common protections that are denied to undocumented workers include but are not limited to: right to receive agreed on wage, right to receive minimum wage and overtime pay for work done, right to conducive and secure working environment, right to receive workers ' compensation for injuries that are as a result of the role they have been given to work and the right not to face discrimination of any kind. The statistics clearly show that undocumented immigrants are a vital part of the workforce in the country. As a construction firm, it is inevitable not to deal with this job scenario. To keep up with the competition, firms are resorting to hiring undocumented immigrants as they are a comparatively cheap source of labor as well as a method of cutting the payroll taxes by exploiting the workers so as not to go out of business.Constitutional r ights of undocumented immigrantsThe United States Constitution demands the protection and upholding of the rights of all persons in the country and as such no one should be discriminated against the due legal processes whether they are U.S.-born or undocumented immigrants (Stein, 100). Undocumented immigrants are therefore eligible for all the procedural rights that a U.S.-born person is bound to. This includes the right to receive a notice to appear in court and defend them in a lawsuit. Legal concepts and aspects that involve labor and immigration laws revolve around two issues: the rights while working in the United States and the legal framework of undocumented immigrants who have no right to be hired in America. These immigration and labor laws were made to prevent hiring illegal workforce which is prohibited by the federal legisla...

The Scramble for Africa Essay - 583 Words

Imagine you’re living peacefully, and suddenly someone comes along and begins telling you that everything you live for is wrong. Not only your beliefs religious wise, but also your lifestyle, the way you dress, even the way you speak. This person suddenly wants to change you so that you are a replica of what they think is correct. How would you feel if a stranger wanted to have complete dominance over you? This is exactly what happened to every African in the late 19th century, only it wasn’t happening to certain individuals, but to all the tribes in Africa. The Africans had no choice, their opinions didn’t matter, they were just like the land: they were just property. Life for the Africans wasn’t always run by imperialist. Although†¦show more content†¦This was the start of imperialism in Africa. Economic, political, and social forces drove Europeans to want to take over land. During this time, the issue of racism also sparked, following with the idea of Social Darwinism. It was a time of â€Å"survival of the fittest† and the anyone who wasn’t European wasn’t fit to survive. There were many forces that enabled imperialism. External and internal forces played a part in the Europeans’ conquest of Africa. A external motive to enter Africa and claim land was the invention of railroads and the steamship. These two inventions greatly aided the Europeans. Africans fought at a huge disadvantage because of their lack modernized weapons, and so the continent of Africa was up for grabs. European countries began rushing to claim parts of Africa for themselves. To avoid a war, the European countries decided to have a conference to solve the problem with African land. Fourteen European nations met at the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) to decide how to divide up Africa. No representatives from Africa were present, so the Europeans did as they pleased. European nations divided up the continent with no regard to the various ethnic and linguistic groups in Africa. This conference decided Africa’s fate and set up Africa up for many conflicts. By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free from European control. While colonizing, the countries thought that Africans would be buyingShow MoreRelatedThe Scramble for Africa1154 Words   |  5 Pages What was the Scramble for Africa? The Scramble for Africa was a period of time where major European countries fought over and colonized land in Africa, stretching from South Africa to Egypt. The scramble for Africa began shortly after the slave trade, and ended at WW1, and is a strong representation of the ‘New Imperialism’. The first country to act was Belgium, who colonized Congo at 1885, but soon, other countries such as Portugal and Great Britain joined in in order to not miss out. FirstlyRead MoreScramble for Africa1841 Words   |  8 PagesWhat were the major historical factors explaining ‘the scramble for Africa’? In order to approach this essay question, my analysis will be divided into two parts. 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Rank Group Defies Brexit With Impressive Profit Increase

Rank Group defies Brexit with impressive profit increase While Brexit has rocked a number of major online gambling industry names, it seems that Rank Group has managed to remain strong. In fact, it can even be argued that Rank Group has gone beyond what it was expected financially speaking, as it posted a profit increase of 15% during the financial year. Coming about through a fresh digital-focused strategy, it appears that Rank Group is defying doubters across the board. The report, which details final results for the year to 30th June, shows that their profit before taxation was a very healthy  £85.5 million, which is a notable increase on the  £74.5 million posted the year prior. Revenue for Rank Group also increased by 2% to  £753 million. The figures show that, generally speaking, Rank Group had a great year, but there was a negative to note amidst the report, as there was 2% dip in the group’s operating profits, as it came in at  £82.4 million before â€Å"exceptional items†. Considering the positivity surrounding Rank Group, Henry Birch (Rank Group Chief Executive) has been quick to comment on the report, he said â€Å"I am pleased to report a solid set of results with group revenue up 2%, again recording like-for-like growth across all brands and channels in the year. This year we have focused on delivering significant projects to ensure we have the right platform in place for future growth. This included the migration of our digital business onto a new platform, the roll out

Sickle Cell Anemi Research Paper - 2366 Words

Kayla Akers 12/4/2014 Sickle Cell Anemia Research Paper MDL 127 Hematology Sickle Cell Anemia is a hereditary disease that has a gene that causes red bone marrow in the body to make sickled shapes, when this happens; it causes the red blood cells to die faster. This is what causes Hemolytic Anemia. Older children and adults with sickle cell disease may have very few complications, or have patterns of ongoing problems that ultimately shorten their lives. The most serious and common problems with sickle cell disease are organ failure, fatigue and pain. There are many opportunities and alternatives for treatment and symptom management that a sickle cell patient can consider today. Sickle Cell Anemia occurs in the bloodstream of the†¦show more content†¦That results in deprivation of oxygen rich blood to the tissues and organs that use and need it. This is what causes the painful episodes that are associated with the disease. This pain can sometimes be related to damage to vital organs such as the spleen, liver, kidneys, pelvic bones, heart, lungs, an d even the brain. Serious complications from certain infected tissues can happen. They cycle of a normal red blood cell is around 120 days, sickled cells differ and can only last for 10-20 days long. The red blood cell supply shortens because the body can’t keep up making them as fast as they are dying, so this results in a condition called, Anemia. Sickle Cell Anemia is caused by the gene that instructs the cell how to make hemoglobin. The gene that is defective, still instructs the cell and it causes the cells to take strange shapes. A genetic mutation occurred years ago in the people of the Mediterranean, India, Middle East, and Africa. The malaria epidemic attacked the people who lived in these countries and the people with the defective hemoglobin gene survived. When carrying only one defective gene, means a person has a sickle cell trait. Two parents with a trait, produce a child with the anemia. Two million Americans approximately carry the sickle cell trait. In the U. S. alone, 72,000 people are affected by Sickle Cell Anemia, the ancestors of most of these people come from Spanish speaking regions,

The Hysteria Of The Cold War - 3830 Words

In What Ways and to What Extent Did the Hysteria of the Cold War lead to the Trial and Execution of the Rosenbergs? Fearing the unknown is a common aspect of human nature. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were an average married couple living in New York City during the Cold War. They were members of the Communist Party when anti-Communist feelings in the United States were at their peak. Little did they know that as they continued with their daily lives, a series of investigations were being conducted that would soon land them in the electric chair. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused and convicted of passing along confidential atomic bomb information to Soviet Union spies. After a long battle, they were executed in the electric chair at Sing Sing Prison in 1953. The couple never admitted guilt to the charges, and their conviction and execution caused their two young boys to grow up without parents. The Rosenberg trial is still considered one of the most controversial events in United States history. Few other trials have instigated as much debate, aroused such passion or generated as many books and articles. Thus the question arises: in what ways and to what extent did the hysteria of the Cold War lead to the trial and execution of the Rosenbergs? The 1951 trial of Julius Rosenberg, Ethel Rosenberg, and Morton Sobell, Communists accused of conspiring to commit espionage for the Soviet Union, drew worldwide attention at a time of heightened American concerns aboutShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Time Out Of Joint By Philip K. Dick1323 Words   |  6 PagesAuthors have therefore been pressured into finding a method to avoid the strict restrictions forced by material power. Philip K. 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Chinas Accession into the World Trade Organization free essay sample

A paper which discusses various aspects of U.S.-China trade relations. The entry of China into the world economy fuels a clash of ideals between those who see it as an opportunity for greater markets and those who stick closely to Maoist ideals and fear the threat to security that this new deal brings. Although it may seem like an opportunity to grow capital markets on a global basis, there are many cultural barriers in the way. This paper examines three aspects of US-China trade relations: Chinas access to foreign capital, Chinas access to technology and Chinas access to NAFTA goods. `Another aspect of trade between the US and China is that in 1999 the US already had a massive trade deficit with China. The US imported far more goods from China than it exported. The entrance of China into the WTO gives them even more access to goods in the United States, however, due to NAFTA this will include Mexican and Canadian goods as well. We will write a custom essay sample on Chinas Accession into the World Trade Organization or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some in the United States fear that this will only serve to widen the trade deficit that already exists.`

Calculative Practice and Innovation Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Calculative Practice and Innovation. Answer: The article main purpose was to explore the association between innovative activity and calculative practice. How calculative practice like accounting develops knowledge which acts as the innovation engine has been fully investigated. The role of accounting through accounting performative impacts is explored to assist in changing the world. The authors overriding thesis in this article is; engines engaged in enticing actors into undertaking novel things by corresponding abilities to stimulate such actors to raise novel queries to observe novel prospects. The authors held that calculative practices provoke the knowledge and insight mobilization process thus becoming integral part of innovation. A dynamic relationship exists between calculative-practice and innovation. This is because the innovation drifts because of calculative practices which are engines that assist in bringing such a drift together. The author uses the example of Telepass technology to illustrate that innovation could influence and recreate engine afresh. The article uses Telepass story as an explanation of how such innovation trajectory described a string of drifts calculative practice performativity mobilizes. It generally indicates the paybacks of studying mutual accounting constitution/vastly calculative practices besides its organizational issues like innovation over a period of time. It calls for such a study to pay attention to the interplays and interactions thereby unearthing that these correlations remain complex and problematic. However, it is held that such an insight further becomes performative to study that might be inspired for the engagement of more in dilemmatic contexts that this kind of interaction presents primarily with concerning counterforces which could halt/bar performativity to unravel; to prevent engines performance. The conclusion is that the alternative model never performed always and hence call to action that Telepasss case could motivate researchers to further to undertake an exploration of the condition for engines performative to be either feasible or unfeasible. Discussion Items Can another methodology be used in explore thesis as outlined above? What are some of the limitations of using the alternative methodology stated above? How best can the limitations realized in the current article be mitigated in the future exploration? References Revellino, S., Mouritsen, J. (2015).Accounting as an engine: The performativity of calculative practices and the dynamics of innovation.Management Accounting Research, 28, 31-49.

What was the Cartoonists View of the verdict passed on Nelson Mandela Essay Example

What was the Cartoonists View of the verdict passed on Nelson Mandela Essay In December 1963 Nelson Mandela was tried in the Rivonia Trial. The Trial lasted until June 1964 where he was imprisoned for life narrowly avoiding being sentenced to death with seven others including Walter Sisulu, the leader of the ANC. Mandela was tried for recruiting people for training and guerrilla warfare for the purpose of violent revolution, when the police raided the MKs headquarters and found links between Mandela and the recent sabotages on power stations. The prosecution demanded that they should all be hanged but the amount of international interest forced the judge to pass life imprisonment on them all. The arrests managed to break down the MK and the ANC inside South Africa. In Source G the cartoonist, a man named Illingworth, has depicted Nelson Mandela being tied down by one finger with a police man a court judge and Verwoerd the most powerful Nationalist party Leader standing next to him. Illingworth is trying to say that the system is not holding him down. This is because in the source Mandelas face is depicted as angry and as though the men tying him down are having no effect on him. It may also be that he is trying to say that the government think that they have felled a giant but really they are having no effect. This is because the characters standing next to Mandela are small compared to him and from their point of view it looks as though they have triumphed over Mandela. The Judge standing next to Mandela is holding a document that says Mandela Judgement. We will write a custom essay sample on What was the Cartoonists View of the verdict passed on Nelson Mandela specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on What was the Cartoonists View of the verdict passed on Nelson Mandela specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on What was the Cartoonists View of the verdict passed on Nelson Mandela specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It is implied that the courts and government think that they are victorious over Mandela. At the time when this source was published Nelson Mandela and the ANC had organised many bomb attacks on power stations and oil refineries. They were trying to make South Africa ungovernable by disruption by these attacks. Illingworth is saying that the government have not stopped Mandela but only hindered him. I say this because the policeman in the source is tying down one of his fingers and this doesnt seem to concern Mandela in the source because it is only one finger. Another way in which this could be interpreted is that the figure of Mandela represents the whole of the Black Community against apartheid. If the finger is interpreted to represent Mandela it conveys the message that you can hold down one man but could never hold back the whole Black Community. Hendrik Verwoerd is in the cartoon because he is one of the leaders of the NP and by the time that the source was published he was one of the main influences behind the Nationalist Party, in the cartoon he is holding his head high and is smiling giving the impression that he is happy and proud that Nelson Mandela has been brought down. Mandela is also pictured as young and strong in the image and this is to give the message that the youth of the ANC is the future and that Mandela and the ANC are strong and will resist. Illingworth would have thought this because he was British and the events in South Africa did not only appeal to the South Africans but to people all over the World because events such as the Sharpeville Massacre and the way the ANC were fighting against apartheid was something that would be put all over the news in other countries. In 1976 there were many anti-apartheid demonstrations in London because people knew what was going on. There was also a growing population who were joining the ANC and many people who although did not join the ANC shared many of its ideas against apartheid so Illingworth was trying to say that the NP think that they have achieved more than they actually have. He probably also realised that he could stir up trouble in England since this is where the Source was printed and could get people to realise that the ANC was the right path to choose for the South Africans. He probably thought that if there was enough outside support then the NP would be forced to change it policies. In 1973 the OAU (Organisation of African Unity) was formed and provided a strong opposition to apartheid this was important because after so much suppression the black community was finally trying to retaliate and this is one of the points in the cartoon. That even though Mandela has been brought down the black community is still strong and there is still a strong opposition towards apartheid. Another reason why the cartoonist may have held this view is because he has seen what has happened in other countries such as those that have had their independence and were now doing well for themselves. The cartoonist may also be ridiculing the NP because South Africa had only recently left the Common Wealth which gave them international standing. He may be pointing out that under the NP South Africa is not doing well and if under the ANC then it will become better. In conclusion Illingworths view of the verdict is that even though Mandela has been put in prison the ANC and the Black Community can not be held down. He thinks this because he is a British supporter of apartheid and wants to see the end of racial discrimination in South Africa. Illingworths view is that Nelson Mandela should not be in prison but that it does not make much difference because the opposition is so strong against the government that even if Mandela is in prison they can still carry out the resistance without him. Through the Source he is trying to say that the government think that they have crushed their opposition by arresting and trying Mandela but Illingworth probably thought this was untrue and that the Black Community and the opposition to apartheid would still go on even though Mandela was not there to organise it.

Essay Sample Questions For IELTS Test

Essay Sample Questions For IELTS TestIELTS essay sample questions are very common and highly important when it comes to preparing for the exam. This is because it allows you to do the proper research before coming up with your own essay. They can also be used in conjunction with other things like a book or website that you are using to help you prepare.There are many different essays that you can prepare for IELTS and you can do so through a mixture of resources. Allowing yourself to use the internet and have access to resources such as books and websites helps you in the preparation for the test. These can be used not only as your guide but can also be used to help you on what to write.One of the best resources to use for your student's essay is the internet. You should learn how to use the search engines to find what you are looking for. Many times you will come across free resources that are useful for essay writing, however it is important to always make sure that they are genuin e and not just a waste of time. Any source that is free should be treated with respect and you should avoid these as much as possible.A hard copy is also a great resource to use when you are preparing for your IELTS test. You should always use the hard copy to take notes and make notes. This helps you in case you lose a piece of paper or even a pen. This is especially important if you are taking notes for your essay that you are reading from a book or online.Students often take a whole lot of notes from their textbooks. You should make sure that your students take the same note taking method when it comes to the IELTS exam. This way you will see a difference in their writing abilities, as they will be more attentive to what they are writing as opposed to cramming their thoughts in their head.Another thing that many students think about when they are preparing for IELTS is doing this when it is winter. However this does not have to be the case and you can find plenty of resources tha t are available during the summer months. However, it is always best to use books or websites to help you get through the exam.Overall, you can use these essay sample questions to help you get through the exam. There are many resources that you can use to help you with this and all you need to do is be careful when taking them. The main thing to remember is that you will have to start studying at least two weeks before the exam is due to take place.

Lorita Utagba Essays (1369 words) - Guggenheim Fellows, Free Essays

Lorita Utagba Essays (1369 words) - Guggenheim Fellows, Free Essays Lorita Utagba English 1100 Writing project 4 rough draft December 3 , 2016 . Fierce Attachment Do I have your attention yet? As a youth, I have always wanted to do want I want in life, I never want to be controlled by my mother that is why I have been having difficulty relationship with my mother. Vivian Gornick is an American critic, journalist with a dazzling skill. She is among the wonderful writers who write about her life. A lot of people are interested in Vivian Gornick because she writes about experiences in life. Vivian Gornick story have made me realize that there is no child that doesn't have misunderstanding with his/her parents. Her story reminds me of how I have been on and off with my mother because we had difficult relationship. Vivian Gornick was born 14 June 1935 in the Bronx, New York is an American critic, journalist, essayist, and memoirist. She was a reporter for the village voice from 1969 to 1977. Her work has also appeared in the New York times , the Nation, the Atlantic monthly, and many other publications. She has published eleven books. Vivian Gornick has written about herself in marriage , friendship as a daughter. As a woman living alone in New York. She has always had difficulty with writing. She describes her struggles and her families in love and work with such calm candor (truthfulness). There is nothing about her she is afraid to see. Vivian Gornick memoirs include fierce attachment (1987 ). Fierce attachment is about her childhood in the Bronx and lifelong antagonism with her mother. Vivian Gornick self-narrative is a form of cultural criticism. Gornick use her own experience and her willingness to write life experiences to tell a larger social story has become the hallmark of her writing. While she acknowledges her Jewish background in much of her work. What led Vivian Gornick into writing was how she saw the relations between men and women were changing fast, so she registered those changes around her and wrote it in her own reading for people to read and understand what are articles is all about, Vivian Gornick was the finalist for the National book critics circle awards. Vivian Gornick writes in the odd woman and the city, a non-fiction hybrid that is part memoir, part cultural criticism. Gornick's New York city , where she lives and writes and belongs. Her articles " fierce attachment " which is parts of her books. Vivian Gornick tells the story of her lifelong battle with her mother for independence. Vivian Gornick was born and raised in the Bronx, the daughter of "urban peasants" Gornick grows up in a household dominated by her intelligent but her mother's romantic depression over the early death of her husband. There was a lady who lives next door, she was an attractive widow whose calculating sensuality appeals greatly to Vivian. Gornick walks with her aged mother through the streets of New York, arguing and remembering the past each wins the reader's admiration. Fierce attachment is one of the most remarkable documents of family feeling that has been written, a classic that helped start the memoir boom and remains one of the most moving examples of the genre. Vivian Gornick relationship with her mother is difficult. At the age of forty-five she regularly meets her mother for strolls along the streets of Manhattan. Her mother knew her daughter hates her because she believes Gornick has been tracking her lifelong struggle for independence. Vivian Gornick has taught creative writing for decades and the repository of her experience. Vivian Gornick story always essentially reflect to her personal experience. She always analyzes the writer's lives and sees their essays as much as possible. Vivian Gornick essay fierce attachment is considered a classic. When it was published in 1987. The New York time called fierce attachment a "fine and unflinchingly honest book". Gornick subsequently published a well-regarded guide to writing personal narratives. In my own opinion, in this book, Gornick narrates the series of walks she takes through the streets of New York with her eighty-year-old mother. Doing so allows her to reflect upon and detail her past. At that time, she

Ethical Implications Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Ethical Implications Report - Essay Example As long as the user will be connected with this system, it will be possible for third parties to extrapolate user’s thoughts and rewrites them (Heather & Graves, 2012). This will guarantee third parties permission to hack into users bodies and be able to cause significant personal concerns without the user knowledge. This system does not give up limits of which a third party can track user’s thoughts and actions. This implies that some matters that we uphold as private and confidential will never have a guarantee of privacy because of this system that will always be connected to user’s bodies. Another ethical fix this system poses is crime. If user thought will control the computer devices in their bodies, then criminals may figure out ways to reverse the system and read the user thoughts (Heather & Graves, 2012). This means that these criminals may successfully access the users’ eyes and view password of highly critical cards like ATM. This will allow them fulfill their criminal activities. Sixth sense technology will make it easy for hackers to plant virus in people’s personal computer (Heather & Graves, 2012). This may cause damages to these users immune system. The virus may also cause a heart attack to the user. All these ethical issues must be put into consideration before accepting the sixth sense

Summary and critical analysis of an article i will attach Assignment

Summary and critical analysis of an article i will attach - Assignment Example Miller further asserts that Target meets the needs of its guests by striving to invest in new product development and conducting brand research. Target’s efforts in achieving the best quality have made it a weekly destination for shoppers. The article further introduces Target and its private label brands, asserting that the Minneapolis-based store offers discounts to its guests in recession, making it a hit with customers. Target takes a non-traditional approach to take private label to a brand level. Target’s private label strategy revolves around consumer research, marketing through national ads and in-store displays, and strategic thinking. Jim Hertel, managing partner with Willard Bishop, asserts that Target focuses on its store image rather than price image, which increases its appeal for the consumers. This strategy makes Target work with the slogan of â€Å"Expect More, Pay Less†. In 2009, the company put off its label and bull’s eye image form the household items that the consumers considered as basic. However, it was accepted as a mistake because no other marketer was doing so, and the change was adjusted in the new up & up household products, which were launched in June 2009. But the Target brand name was replaced by the up & up line in these products. Target also promoted couponing in the up & up line that could be printed from the Web. This proved to be a good marketing idea. The couponing was targeted on baby wipes, which attracted the mothers’ interest. Target also moved upscale by marketing brands like Choxie chocolate line. It distinguished Market Pantry from Archer Farms. Target also faces some challenges like rolling out its PFresh food format across it store network. It has to spend more than $2 billion to refurbish 740 stores to make them incorporate the PFresh fresh products collection. The article is an excellent introduction to Target’s private label brands. It

Evolution of Management Essay Example for Free

Evolution of Management Essay As long as there have been human endeavors, there have been people willing to take charge—people willing to plan, organize, staff, and control the work. One might say that nature abhors a vacuum and thus someone will always step forward to fill a leadership void. Probably the natural emergence of leadership grew out of our instinct for survival. In the hostile world of early humankind, food, shelter, and safety needs usually required cooperative efforts, and cooperative efforts required some form of leadership. Certainly leadership was vested in the heads of early families via the patriarchal system. The oldest member of the family was the most experienced and was presumed to be the wisest member of the family and thus was the natural leader. As families grew into tribes and tribes evolved into nations, more complex forms of leadership were required and did evolve. Division of labor and supervision practices is recorded on the earliest written record, the clay tablets of the Sumerians. In Sumerian society, as in many others since, the wisest and best leaders were thought to be the priests and other religious leaders. Likewise, the ancient Babylonian cities developed very strict codes, such as the code of Hammurabi. King Nebuchadnezzar used color codes to control production of the hanging gardens, and there were weekly and annual reports, norms for productivity, and rewards for piecework. The Egyptians organized their people and their slaves to build their cities and pyramids. Construction of one pyramid, around 5000 BC. , required the labor of 100,000 people working for approximately 20 years. Planning, organizing, and controlling were essential elements of that and other feats, many of them long term. The ancient Egyptian Pharaohs had long-term planners and advisors, as did their contemporaries in China. China perfected military organization based on line and staff principles and used these same principles in the early Chinese dynasties. Confucius wrote parables that offered practical suggestions for public administration. In the Old Testament, Moses led a group of Jewish slaves out of Egypt and then organized them into a nation. Exodus, Chapter 18, describes how Moses â€Å"chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people, and differentiated between rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens. A system of judges also evolved, with only the hard cases coming to Moses. The city-states of Greece were commonwealths, with councils, courts, administrative officials, and boards of generals. Socrates talked about management as a skill separate from technical knowledge and experience. Plato wrote about specialization and proposed notions of a healthy republic. The Roman Empire is thought by many to have been so successful because of the Romans’ great ability to organize the military and conquer new lands. Those sent to govern the far-flung parts of the empire were effective administrators and were able to maintain relationships with leaders from other provinces and across the empire as a whole. There are numerous other ancient leaders who were skillful organizers, at least as indicated by their accomplishments, such as Hannibal, who shepherded an army across the Alps, and the first emperor of China, who built the Great Wall. Many of the practices employed today in leading, managing, and administering modern organizations have their origins in antiquity. Many concepts of authority developed in a religious context. One example is the Roman Catholic Church with its efficient formal organization and management techniques. The chain of command or path of authority, including the concept of specialization, was a most important contribution to management theory. Machiavelli also wrote about authority, stressing that it comes from the consent of the masses. However, the ideas Machiavelli expressed in The Prince are more often viewed as mainly concerned with leadership and communication. Much management theory has military origins, probably because efficiency and effectiveness are essential for success in warfare. The concepts of unity of command, line of command, staff advisors, and division of work all can be traced back at least to Alexander the Great, or even earlier, to Lao Tzu. The Industrial Revolution created a need for new thinking and the refinement of old thinking. Time and motion studies intensified the division of work, as did centralized production and research and development. Modern management theory prevails afterwards. The preceding historical review indicates that thinking about management and leadership is in large part situational and that practices evolved to deal with new situations that arose. It also indicates that yesterday’s principles and theories are surprisingly contemporary and surprisingly sophisticated. Some overlap occurs, of course, and some gaps. Today’s theorists have attempted to fill in the gaps and adapt the theories to current situations. Yet, like in other areas of thought, not much is of recent origin in the field of management theory. The Evolution of Management Changes in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources. In this paper, we will try to examine how management theory concerning appropriate management practices has evolved in modern times, and look at the central concerns that have guided its development. First, we look into the so-called classical management theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These include scientific management, which focuses on matching people and tasks to maximize efficiency; and administrative management, which focuses on identifying the principles that will lead to the creation of the most efficient system of organization and management. Next, we consider behavioral management theories, developed both before and after the Second World War, which focus on how managers should lead and control their workforces to increase performance. Then we discuss management science theory, which developed during the Second World War and which has become increasingly important as researchers have developed rigorous analytical and quantitative techniques to help managers measure and control organizational performance. Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to help explain how the external environment affects the way organizations and managers operate. At the end of this paper, one will understand the ways in which management theory has evolved over time. One will also understand how economic, political, and cultural forces have affected the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations behave. Figure 1. 1 summarizes the chronology of the management theories that are discussed in this paper. Scientific Management Theory The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizations—political, educational, and economic—were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers’ needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries. Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing. Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations’ resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker–task mix. Job specialization and division of labor The famous economist Adam Smith was one of the first to look at the effects of different manufacturing systems. 7 He compared the relative performance of two different manufacturing methods. The first was similar to crafts-style production, in which each worker was responsible for all of the 18 tasks involved in producing a pin. The other had each worker performing only 1 or a few of the 18 tasks that go into making a completed pin. Smith found that factories in which workers specialized in only 1 or a few tasks had greater performance than factories in which each worker performed all 18 pin-making tasks. In fact, Smith found that 10 workers specializing in a particular task could, between them, make 48 000 pins a day, whereas those workers who performed all the tasks could make only a few thousand at most. Smith reasoned that this difference in performance was due to the fact that the workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks, and, as a group, were thus able to produce a product faster than the group of workers who each had to perform many tasks. Smith concluded that increasing the level of job specialization— the process by which a division of labour occurs as different workers specialize in different tasks over time—increases efficiency and leads to higher organizational performance. Based on Adam Smith’s observations, early management practitioners and theorists focused on how managers should organize and control the work process to maximize the advantages of job specialization and the division of labour. F. W. Taylor and Scientific Management Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) is best known for defining the techniques of scientific management, the systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency. Taylor believed that if the amount of time and effort that each worker expended to produce a unit of output (a finished good or service) could be reduced by increasing specialization and the division of labour, then the production process would become more efficient. Taylor believed that the way to create the most efficient division of labour could best be determined by means of scientific management techniques, rather than intuitive or informal rule-of-thumb knowledge. This decision ultimately resulted in problems. For example, some managers using scientific management obtained increases in performance, but rather than sharing performance gains with workers through bonuses as Taylor had advocated, they simply increased the amount of work that each worker was expected to do. Many workers experiencing the reorganized work system found that as their performance increased, managers required them to do more work for the same pay. Workers also learned that increases in performance often meant fewer jobs and a greater threat of layoffs, because fewer workers were needed. In addition, the specialized, simplified jobs were often monotonous and repetitive, and many workers became dissatisfied with their jobs. Scientific management brought many workers more hardship than gain, and left them with a distrust of managers who did not seem to care about their wellbeing. These dissatisfied workers resisted attempts to use the new scientific management techniques and at times even withheld their job knowledge from managers to protect their jobs and pay. Unable to inspire workers to accept the new scientific management techniques for performing tasks, some organizations increased the mechanization of the work process. For example, one reason for Henry Ford’s introduction of moving conveyor belts in his factory was the realization that when a conveyor belt controls the pace of work (instead of workers setting their own pace), workers can be pushed to perform at higher levels—levels that they may have thought were beyond their reach. Charlie Chaplin captured this aspect of mass production in one of the opening scenes of his famous movie, Modern Times (1936). In the film, Chaplin caricatured a new factory employee fighting to work at the machine imposed pace but losing the battle to the machine. Henry Ford also used the principles of scientific management to identify the tasks that each worker should perform on the production line and thus to determine the most effective way to create a division of labour to suit the needs of a mechanized production system. From a performance perspective, the combination of the two management practices— (1) achieving the right mix of worker–task specialization and (2) linking people and tasks by the speed of the production line—makes sense. It produces the huge savings in cost and huge increases in output that occur in large, organized work settings. For example, in 1908, managers at the Franklin Motor Company redesigned the work process using scientific management principles, and the output of cars increased from 100 cars a month to 45 cars a day; workers’ wages increased by only 90 percent, however. From other perspectives, though, scientific management practices raise many concerns. The definition of the workers’ rights not by the workers themselves but by the owners or managers as a result of the introduction of the new management practices raises an ethical issue, which we examine in this â€Å"Ethics in Action. † Fordism in Practice From 1908 to 1914, through trial and error, Henry Ford’s talented team of production managers pioneered the development of the moving conveyor belt and thus changed manufacturing practices forever. Although the technical aspects of the move to mass production were a dramatic financial success for Ford and for the millions of Americans who could now afford cars, for the workers who actually produced the cars, many human and social problems resulted. With simplification of the work process, workers grew to hate the monotony of the moving conveyor belt. By 1914, Ford’s car plants were experiencing huge employee turnover—often reaching levels as high as 300 or 400 percent per year as workers left because they could not handle the work-induced stress. 15 Henry Ford recognized these problems and made an announcement: From that point on, to motivate his workforce, he would reduce the length of the workday from nine hours to eight hours, and the company would double the basic wage from US$2. 50 to US$5. 00 per day. This was a dramatic increase, similar to an announcement today of an overnight doubling of the minimum wage. Ford became an internationally famous figure, and the word â€Å"Fordism† was coined for his new approach. Ford’s apparent generosity was matched, however, by an intense effort to control the resources—both human and material—with which his empire was built. He employed hundreds of inspectors to check up on employees, both inside and outside his factories. In the factory, supervision was close and confining. Employees were not allowed to leave their places at the production line, and they were not permitted to talk to one another. Their job was to concentrate fully on the task at hand. Few employees could adapt to this system, and they developed ways of talking out of the sides of their mouths, like ventriloquists, and invented a form of speech that became known as the â€Å"Ford Lisp. † Ford’s obsession with control brought him into greater and greater conflict with managers, who were often fired when they disagreed with him. As a result, many talented people left Ford to join his growing rivals. Outside the workplace, Ford went so far as to establish what he called the â€Å"Sociological Department† to check up on how his employees lived and the ways in which they spent their time. Inspectors from this department visited the homes of employees and investigated their habits and problems. Employees who exhibited behaviours contrary to Ford’s standards (for instance, if they drank too much or were always in debt) were likely to be fired. Clearly, Ford’s effort to control his employees led him and his managers to behave in ways that today would be considered unacceptable and unethical, and in the long run would impair an organization’s ability to prosper. Despite the problems of worker turnover, absenteeism, and discontent at Ford Motor Company, managers of the other car companies watched Ford reap huge gains in efficiency from the application of the new management principles. They believed that their companies would have to imitate Ford if they were to survive. They followed Taylor and used many of his followers as consultants to teach them how to adopt the techniques of scientific management. In addition, Taylor elaborated his principles in several books, including Shop Management (1903) and The detail how to apply the principles of scientific management to reorganize the work system. Taylor’s work has had an enduring effect on the management of production systems. Managers in every organization, whether it produces goods or services, now carefully analyze the basic tasks that must be performed and try to devise the work systems that will allow their organizations to operate most efficiently. The Gilbreths Two prominent followers of Taylor were Frank Gilbreth (1868–1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972), who refined Taylor’s analysis of work movements and made many contributions to time-and-motion study. Their aims were to (1) break up into each of its component actions and analyze every individual action necessary to perform a particular task, (2) find better ways to perform each component action, and (3) reorganize each of the component actions so that the action as a whole could be performed more efficiently—at less cost of time and effort. The Gilbreths often filmed a worker performing a particular task and then separated the task actions, frame by frame, into their component movements. Their goal was to maximize the efficiency with which each individual task was performed so that gains across tasks would add up to enormous savings of time and effort. Their attempts to develop improved management principles were captured—at times quite humorously—in the movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which depicts how the Gilbreths (with their 12 children) tried to live their own lives according to these efficiency principles and apply them to daily actions such as shaving, cooking, and even raising a family. Eventually, the Gilbreths became increasingly interested in the study of fatigue. They studied how the physical characteristics of the workplace contribute to job stress that often leads to fatigue and thus poor performance. They isolated factors— such as lighting, heating, the colour of walls, and the design of tools and machines—that result in worker fatigue. Their pioneering studies paved the way for new advances in management theory. In workshops and factories, the work of the Gilbreths, Taylor, and many others had a major effect on the practice of management. In comparison with the old crafts system, jobs in the new system were more repetitive, boring, and monotonous as a result of the application of scientific management principles, and workers became increasingly dissatisfied. Frequently, the management of work settings became a game between workers and managers: Managers tried to initiate work practices to increase performance, and workers tried to hide the true potential efficiency of the work setting in order to protect their own well-being. Administrative management theory Side by side with scientific managers studying the person–task mix to increase efficiency, other researchers were focusing on administrative management, the study of how to create an organizational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. Organizational structure is the system of task and authority relationships that control how employees use resources to achieve the organization’s goals. Two of the most influential views regarding the creation of efficient systems of organizational administration were developed in Europe. Max Weber, a German professor of sociology, developed one theory. Henri Fayol, the French manager who developed a model of management introduced earlier, developed the other. The Theory of Bureaucracy Max Weber (1864–1920) wrote at the turn of the twentieth century, when Germany was undergoing its industrial revolution. To help Germany manage its growing industrial enterprises at a time when it was striving to become a world power, Weber developed the principles of bureaucracy—a formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. A bureaucratic system of administration is based on five principles (summarized in Figure 1. 2). †¢ Principle 1: In a bureaucracy, a manager’s formal authority derives from the position he or she holds in the organization. Authority is the power to hold people accountable for their actions and to make decisions concerning the use of organizational resources. Authority gives managers the right to direct and control their subordinates’ behaviour to achieve organizational goals. In a bureaucratic system of administration, obedience is owed to a manager, not because of any personal qualities that he or she might possess— such as personality, wealth, or social status—but because the manager occupies a position that is associated with a certain level of authority and responsibility. †¢ Principle 2: In a bureaucracy, people should occupy positions because of their performance, not because of their social standing or personal contacts. This principle was not always followed in Weber’s time and is often ignored today. Some organizations and industries are still affected by social networks in which personal contacts and relations, not job-related skills, influence hiring and promotional decisions. †¢ Principle 3: The extent of each position’s formal authority and task responsibilities, and its relationship to other positions in an organization, should be clearly specified. When the tasks and authority associated with various positions in the organization are clearly specified, managers and workers know what is expected of them and what to expect from each other. Moreover, an organization can hold all its employees strictly accountable for their actions when each person is completely familiar with his or her responsibilities. †¢ Principle 4: So that authority can be exercised effectively in an organization, positions should be arranged hierarchically, so employees know whom to report to and who reports to them. Managers must create an organizational hierarchy of authority that makes it clear who reports to whom and to whom managers and workers should go if conflicts or problems arise. This principle is especially important in the armed forces, CSIS, RCMP, and other organizations that deal with sensitive issues involving possible major repercussions. It is vital that managers at high levels of the hierarchy be able to hold subordinates accountable for their actions. †¢ Principle 5: Managers must create a well-defined system of rules, standard operating procedures, and norms so that they can effectively control behaviour within an organization. Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances to achieve specific goals (for example, if A happens, do B). Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are specific sets of written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task. A rule might state that at the end of the workday employees are to leave their machines in good order, and a set of SOPs then specifies exactly how they should do so, itemizing which machine parts must be oiled or replaced. Norms are unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations. For example, an organizational norm in a restaurant might be that waiters should help each other if time permits. Rules, SOPs, and norms provide behavioural guidelines that improve the performance of a bureaucratic system because they specify the best ways to accomplish organizational tasks. Companies such as McDonald’s and Wal-Mart have developed extensive rules and procedures to specify the types of behaviours that are required of their employees, such as, â€Å"Always greet the customer with a smile. † Weber believed that organizations that implement all five principles will establish a bureaucratic system that will improve organizational performance. The specification of positions and the use of rules and SOPs to regulate how tasks are performed make it easier for managers to organize and control the work of subordinates. Similarly, fair and equitable selection and promotion systems improve managers’ feelings of security, reduce stress, and encourage organizational members to act ethically and further promote the interests of the organization. If bureaucracies are not managed well, however, many problems can result. Sometimes, managers allow rules and SOPs—â€Å"bureaucratic red tape†Ã¢â‚¬â€to become so cumbersome that decision making becomes slow and inefficient and organizations are unable to change. When managers rely too much on rules to solve problems and not enough on their own skills and judgment, their behaviour becomes inflexible. A key challenge for managers is to use bureaucratic principles to benefit, rather than harm, an organization. Fayol’s Principles of Management Working at the same time as Weber but independently of him, Henri Fayol (1841–1925), the CEO of Comambault Mining, identified 14 principles (summarized in Table 2. ) that he believed to be essential to increasing the efficiency of the management process. Some of the principles that Fayol outlined have faded from contemporary management practices, but most have endured. The principles that Fayol and Weber set forth still provide a clear and appropriate set of guidelines that managers can use to create a work setting that makes efficient and effective use of organizational resources. These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory; recent researchers have refined or developed them to suit modern conditions. For example, Weber’s and Fayol’s concerns for equity and for establishing appropriate links between performance and reward are central themes in contemporary theories of motivation and leadership. Behavioural Management Theory The behavioural management theorists writing in the first half of the twentieth century all espoused a theme that focused on how managers should personally behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals. The â€Å"Management Insight† indicates how employees can become demoralized when managers do not treat their employees properly. Management Insight How to Discourage Employees Catherine Robertson, owner of Vancouver-based Robertson Telecom Inc. , made headlines in February 2001 for her management policies. Robertson is a government contractor whose company operates Enquiry BC, which gives British Columbians toll-free telephone information and referral services about all provincial government programs. Female telephone operators at Robertson Telecom must wear skirts or dresses even though they never come in contact with the public. Not even dress pants are allowed. As Gillian Savage, a former employee, notes, â€Å"This isn’t a suggested thing, it’s an order: No pants. † Brad Roy, another former employee, claims a female Indo-Canadian employee was sent home to change when she arrived at work wearing a Punjabi suit (a long shirt over pants). The no-pants rule is not the only concern of current and former employees. Roy also said, â€Å"I saw some people being reprimanded for going to the washroom. While Robertson denied Roy’s allegation regarding washrooms, she did confirm that company policy included the no-pants rule, that employees were not allowed to bring their purses or other personal items to their desks, and that they were not allowed to drink coffee or bottled water at their desks. The company does not provide garbage cans for the employees. A g roup of current and former employees recently expressed concern with the number of rules Robertson has in place, and claimed that the rules have led to high turnover and poor morale. A current employee claims that many workers do not care whether they give out the right government phone numbers. Robertson said that she knew of no employees who were discontent, and was shocked that the policies had caused distress among employees. She defended the dress code as appropriate business attire. Robertson may have to make some adjustments in her management style. The cabinet minister responsible for Enquiry BC, Catherine MacGregor, ordered an investigation of the contractor after being contacted by The Vancouver Sun about the allegations. She noted that the skirts-only rule for women is not appropriate, and that, â€Å"All of our contractors are expected to fully comply with the Employment Standards Act, Workers Compensation rules and human rights legislation. † Additionally, Mary-Woo Sims, head of the BC Human Rights Commission, said dress codes can’t be based on gender. Thus, an employer can’t tell men they must wear pants (as Robertson does), but tell women they can’t. â€Å"On the face of it, it would appear to be gender discriminatory,† Sims said. The Work of Mary Parker Follett If F. W. Taylor is considered to be the father of management thought, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) serves as its mother. 28 Much of her writing about management and about the way managers should behave toward workers was a response to her concern that Taylor was ignoring the human side of the organization. She pointed out that management often overlooks the multitude of ways in which employees can contribute to the organization when managers allow them to participate and exercise initiative in their everyday work lives. Taylor, for example, relied on time-and-motion experts to analyze workers’ jobs for them. Follett, in contrast, argued that because workers know the most about their jobs, they should be involved in job analysis and managers should allow them to participate in the work development process. Follett proposed that, â€Å"Authority should go with knowledge whether it is up the line or down. † In other words, if workers have the relevant knowledge, then workers, rather than managers, should be in control of the work process itself, and managers should behave as coaches and facilitators—not as monitors and supervisors. In making this statement, Follett anticipated the current interest in self-managed teams and empowerment. She also recognized the importance of having managers in different departments communicate directly with each other to speed decision making. She advocated what she called â€Å"cross-functioning†: members of different departments working together in cross-departmental teams to accomplish projects—an approach that is increasingly utilized today. Fayol also mentioned expertise and knowledge as important sources of managers’ authority, but Follett went further. She proposed that knowledge and expertise, and not managers’ formal authority deriving from their position in the hierarchy, should decide who would lead at any particular moment. She believed, as do many management theorists today, that power is fluid and should flow to the person who can best help the organization achieve its goals. Follett took a horizontal view of power and authority, in contrast to Fayol, who saw the formal line of authority and vertical chain of command as being most essential to effective management. Follett’s behavioural approach to management was very radical for its time. The Hawthorne Studies and Human Relations Probably because of its radical nature, Follett’s work was unappreciated by managers and researchers until quite recently. Instead, researchers continued to follow in the footsteps of Taylor and the Gilbreths. One focus was on how efficiency might be increased through improving various characteristics of the work setting, such as job specialization or the kinds of tools workers used. One series of studies was conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This research, now known as the Hawthorne studies, began as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work setting—specifically the level of lighting or illumination—affect worker fatigue and performance. The researchers conducted an experiment in which they systematically measured worker productivity at various levels of illumination. The experiment produced some unexpected results. The researchers found that regardless of whether they raised or lowered the level of illumination, productivity increased. In fact, productivity began to fall only when the level of illumination dropped to the level of moonlight, a level at which presumably workers could no longer see well enough to do their work efficiently. The researchers found these results puzzling and invited a noted Harvard psychologist, Elton Mayo, to help them. Subsequently, it was found that many other factors also influence worker behaviour, and it was not clear what was actually influencing the Hawthorne workers’ behaviour. However, this particular effect— which became known as the Hawthorne effect—seemed to suggest that workers’ attitudes toward their managers affect the level of workers’ performance. In particular, the significant finding was that a manager’s behaviour or leadership approach can affect performance. This finding led many researchers to turn their attention to managerial behaviour and leadership. If supervisors could be trained to behave in ways that would elicit cooperative behaviour from their subordinates, then productivity could be increased. From this view emerged the human relations movement, which advocates that supervisors be behaviourally trained to manage subordinates in ways that elicit their cooperation and increase their productivity. The importance of behavioural or human relations training became even clearer to its supporters after another series of experiments—the bank wiring room experiments. In a study of workers making telephone switching equipment, researchers Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger discovered that the workers, as a group, had deliberately adopted a norm of output restriction to protect their jobs. Workers who violated this informal production norm were subjected to sanctions by other group members. Those who violated group performance norms and performed above the norm were called â€Å"ratebusters†; those who performed below the norm were called â€Å"chiselers. † The experimenters concluded that both types of workers threatened the group as a whole. Ratebusters threatened group members because they revealed to managers how fast the work could be done. Chiselers were looked down on because they were not doing their share of the work. Work-group members disciplined both ratebusters and chiselers in order to create a pace of work that the workers (not the managers) thought was fair. Thus, a work group’s influence over output can be as great as the supervisors’ influence. Since the work group can influence the behavior of its members, some management theorists argue that supervisors should be trained to behave in ways that gain the goodwill and cooperation of workers so that supervisors, not workers, control the level of work-group performance. One of the main implications of the Hawthorne studies was that the behavior of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the technical aspects of the task. Managers must understand the workings of the informal organization, the system of behavioural rules and norms that emerge in a group, when they try to manage or change behaviour in organizations. Many studies have found that, as time passes, groups often develop elaborate procedures and norms that bond members together, allowing unified action either to cooperate with management in order to raise performance or to restrict output and thwart the attainment of organizational goals. The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviour of work-group members and managers affect performance. It was becoming increasingly clear to researchers that understanding behaviour in organizations is a complex process that is critical to increasing performance. Indeed, the increasing interest in the area of management known as organizational behaviour, the study of the factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations, dates from these early studies. Theory X and Theory Y Several studies after the Second World War revealed how assumptions about workers’ attitudes and behaviour affect managers’ behaviour. Perhaps the most influential approach was developed by Douglas McGregor. He proposed that two different sets of assumptions about work attitudes and behaviours dominate the way managers think and affect how they behave in organizations. McGregor named these two contrasting sets of assumptions Theory X and Theory Y (see Figure 1. 3). THEORY X According to the assumptions of Theory X, the average worker is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possible. Moreover, workers have little ambition and wish to avoid responsibility. Thus, the manager’s task is to counteract workers’ natural tendencies to avoid work. To keep workers’ performance at a high level, the manager must supervise them closely and control their behaviour by means of â€Å"the carrot and stick†Ã¢â‚¬â€rewards and punishments. Managers who accept the assumptions of Theory X design and shape the work setting to maximize their control over workers’ behaviours and minimize workers’ control over the pace of work. These managers believe that workers must be made to do what is necessary for the success of the organization, and they focus on developing rules, SOPs, and a well-defined system of rewards and punishments to control behaviour. They see little point in giving workers autonomy to solve their own problems because they think that the workforce neither expects nor desires cooperation. Theory X managers see their role as to closely monitor workers to ensure that they contribute to the production process and do not threaten product quality. Henry Ford, who closely supervised and managed his workforce, fits McGregor’s description of a manager who holds Theory X assumptions. THEORY Y In contrast, Theory Y assumes that workers are not inherently lazy, do not naturally dislike work, and, if given the opportunity, will do what is good for the organization. According to Theory Y, the characteristics of the work setting determine whether workers consider work to be a source of satisfaction or punishment; and managers do not need to control workers’ behaviour closely in order to make them perform at a high level, because workers will exercise selfcontrol when they are committed to organizational goals. The implication of Theory Y, according to McGregor, is that â€Å"the limits of collaboration in the organizational setting are not limits of human nature but of management’s ingenuity in discovering how to realize the potential represented by its human resources. It is the manager’s task to create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for workers to be imaginative and to exercise initiative and self-direction. When managers design the organizational setting to reflect the assumptions about attitudes and behaviour suggested by Theory Y, the characteristics of the o rganization are quite different from those of an organizational setting based on Theory X. Managers who believe that workers are motivated to help the organization reach its goals can decentralize authority and give more control over the job to workers, both as individuals and in groups. In this setting, individuals and groups are still accountable for their activities, but the manager’s role is not to control employees but to provide support and advice, to make sure employees have the resources they need to perform their jobs, and to evaluate them on their ability to help the organization meet its goals. Henri Fayol’s approach to administration more closely reflects the assumptions of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. Management Science Theory This theory focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, management science theory is a contemporary extension of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the worker–task mix in order to raise efficiency. There are many branches of management science; each of them deals with a specific set of concerns: Quantitative management utilizes mathematical techniques—such as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theory—to help managers decide, for example, how much inventory to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organization’s financial capital. Resources in the organizational environment include the raw materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who buy these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of determining the relative success of an organization is to consider how effective its managers are at obtaining scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s. The Open-Systems View One of the most influential views of how an organization is affected by its external environment was developed by Daniel Katz, Robert Kahn, and James Thompson in the 1960s. 38 These theorists viewed the organization as an open system— a system that takes in resources from its external environment and converts or transforms them into goods and services that are then sent back to that environment, where they are bought by customers (see Figure 1. 4). At the input stage, an organization acquires resources such as raw materials, money, and skilled workers to produce goods and services. Once the organization has gathered the necessary resources, conversion begins. At the conversion stage, the organization’s workforce, using appropriate tools, techniques, and machinery, transforms the inputs into outputs of finished goods and services such as cars, hamburgers, or flights to Hawaii. At the output stage, the organization releases finished goods and services to its external environment, where customers purchase and use them to satisfy their needs. The money the organization obtains from the sales of its outputs allows the organization to acquire more resources so that the cycle can begin again. The system just described is said to be â€Å"open† because the organization draws from and interacts with the external environment in order to survive; in other words, the organization is open to its environment. A closed system, in contrast, is a self-contained system that is not affected by changes that occur in its external environment. Organizations that operate as closed ystems, that ignore the external environment and that fail to acquire inputs, are likely to experience entropy, the tendency of a system to lose its ability to control itself and thus to dissolve and disintegrate. Management theorists can model the activities of most organizations by using the open-systems view. Manufacturing companies like Ford and General Electric, for example, buy inputs such as component parts, skilled and semiskilled labour, and robots and computer-controlled manufacturing equipment; then, at the conversion stage, they use their manufacturing skills to assemble inputs into outputs of cars and computers. As we discuss in later chapters, competition between organizations for resources is one of several major challenges to managing the organizational environment. Researchers using the open-systems view are also interested in how the various parts of a system work together to promote efficiency and effectiveness. Systems theorists like to argue that â€Å"the parts are more than the sum of the whole†; they mean that an organization performs at a higher level when its departments work together rather than separately. Synergy, the performance gains that result when individuals and departments coordinate their actions, is possible only in an organized system. The recent interest in using teams comprising people from different departments reflects systems theorists’ interest in designing organizational systems to create synergy and thus increase efficiency and effectiveness.